Why is the Smith Chart one of the scariest charts in electrical engineering? Sponsored by Incogni – use code veritasium at https://incogni.com/veritasium to get an exclusive 60% off your annual subscription.

Last year, we launched the Elements of Truth game on Kickstarter and were thrilled by the response. We’re now in the final stages of production, with Kickstarter rewards shipping soon. Pre-order the retail edition here: https://elementsoftruth.game/

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▀▀▀
0:00 The Scariest Chart In Engineering
3:24 Standing Waves And Reflections
7:24 Why does a wave bounce back?
10:15 How to stop a wave from bouncing back
17:06 The Smith Chart
25:53 How To Read The Smith Chart
30:42 This Circuit Gets Better When You Break It
35:22 Why were we slow to use it?
37:06 Is it still useful?

▀▀▀
A big shout out to Imperial College London for letting us use their screened RF anechoic chamber. In particular, a massive thanks to Prof. Stepan Lucyszyn and Ian Rossuck for helping us set up the demos seen in this video.

Also special thanks to Zach Star, Dr. Cynthia Furse, Dr James Nagel, and Ralph Gable for their invaluable expertise!

Check out @zachstar ‘s video on the Smith Chart here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXWbdxOAuDs

Check out @3blue1brown ‘s video to learn more about transformations and conformal maps: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ldxFjLJ3rVY

▀▀▀
References: https://ve42.co/SmithChartsRefs

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, André Powell, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Bryan Ackermann, Chris Brewer, Data Don, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, EJ Alexandra, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Hayden Christensen, Hong Thai Le, Ibby Hadeed, Jeromy Johnson, Jesse Brandsoy, Juan Benet, Kelcey Steele, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mark Heising, Martin Paull, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Moebiusol – Cristian, Orlando Bassotto, Parsee Health, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robson, Sam Lutfi, Shalva Bukia, Sinan Taifour, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, Vahe Andonians, wolfee

▀▀▀
Writer, Producer & Director: Henry van Dyck
Presenter: Henry van Dyck
Editors: Trenton Oliver, Axel Oliver & Peter Nelson
Animators: Emma Wright, Alex Drakoulis, Andrew Neet & Fabio Albertelli
Illustrator: Jakub Misiek
Researchers: Darius Garewal & Gabe Strong
Asst. Editors: James Stuart & Jonny Leonard
Simulations: Darius Garewal & Henry van Dyck
Camera/Drone Operators: Robert Newman & Xavier Bussière
Additional Writing: Darius Garewal
Thumbnail Designers: Abdallah Rabah & Daniel Ellacott
Production Team: Jess Bishop-Laggett, Glen Griffiths, Matthew Cavanagh, Luke Lewis & Anna Milkovic
Executive Producers: Casper Mebius

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Light is the fastest thing in the universe.

In order to be this fast it always needs to take the shortest path (as it’s speed cannot change).

So how does it always know what the shortest path is?

Plants can stay cooler than the air around them, even in full sun. How is that possible? We partnered with Anker to find out…

Pick up your Anker Prime Charger here:
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#AnkerTech #Anker #AnkerPrime

Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord!
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Modern physics is weird. In quantum mechanics we have the Schrodinger’s cat thought experiment, a cat in a quantum superposition of being simultaneously alive and dead. And in relativity the twin paradox thought experiment, a space-faring twin ages less than her stay-at-home sibling. But what if we could combine these and send our quantum twin around the galaxy. Could we be simultaneously old and young? What would that tell us about the quantum nature of time? And would we need schrodinger birthday candles?

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Richard Dyer & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: Mike Martin

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2026 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Alexander Tamas
Filip Rolenec
Juan Benet
Kenneth See
Mark Rosenthal
MATTHEW OCKO
Morgan Hough
Peter Barrett
Vinnie Falco

Supernova
Ethan Cohen
Glenn Sugden
Grace Biaelcki
Justin Lloyd
Mark Heising
Rad Antonov
Shaun Williams
Stephen Wilcox
Tristan Lucian Claudius Aurelius Tyacke

Hypernova
Daniel Muzquiz
Alex Kern
Ben Delo
Chuck Zegar
Dean Galvin
Donal Botkin
Gregory Forfa
Jeff White
John R. Slavik
Massimiliano Pala
PAUL C PEDERSEN
Scott Gorlick
Scott Gray
Spencer Jones
Vlad Shipulin
Zachary Haberman
Антон Кочков

Gamma Ray Burst
Jason Bowen
Aaron Pinto
Almog Cohen
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Austin Richards
Ayden Miller
Bert Whetstone
Bradley Jenkins
Bradley Ulis
Brandon Lattin
Cal Harrington
Cal Stephens
Cali Chuck
Chris Liao
Christopher Wade
Collin Dutrow
Craig Falls
Craig Stonaha
Dan Warren
Daniel Donahue
Daniel Jennings
Darrell Stewart
David Giltinan
David Johnston
Diana S Polijar
Donovan King
Doyle Vann
Eric Kiebler
Eric Raschke
Eric Schrenker
Faraz Khan
Frederic Simon
Harsh Khandhadia
Isaac Suttell
James Trimmier
Jeb Campbell
Jeff Harris
Jeremy Soller
Jerry Thomas
jim bartosh
John Anderson
John De Witt
John Funai
John H. Austin, Jr.
John Mieras USN Ret
Joseph Salomone
Junaid Ali
Justin Zheng
Kacper Cieśla
Kent Durham
Koen Wilde
Kurtis Kemple
Kyle Atkinson
Lori Ferris
Marcelo Garcia
Marion Lang
Mark Daniel Cohen
Mark Delagasse
Matt Kaprocki
Matthew Johnson
Michael Barton
Michael Clark
Michael Lev
Michael Purcell
Michael Spallino
Mikk Mihkel Nurges
Nicolas Katsantonis
Nils Anderson
Onemind
Paul Wood
Reuben Brewer
Richard Steenbergen
Robert DeChellis
Ross Kennedy
Ross Story
Russell Moore
SamSword
Sandhya Devi
Sean Owen
Shane Calimlim
Terje Vold
Terrance Cennon
Thomas Dougherty
Tybie Fitzhugh
WILLIAM HAY III
Zac Sweers

Start speaking a new language in 3 weeks with Babbel 🎉. Get up to 50% OFF ➡️ Here: https://bit.ly/PBSJun26

Don’t panic, but it’s possible that an event horizon is forming right behind you right now. Don’t bother looking—you won’t see it. You won’t know that it’s growing to envelop you until it’s way too late. And it definitely won’t look like the classic picture of a black hole that you’re probably familiar with.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Richard Dyer & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: Mike Martin

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2026 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Alexander Tamas
Filip Rolenec
Juan Benet
Kenneth See
Mark Rosenthal
MATTHEW OCKO
Morgan Hough
Peter Barrett
Vinnie Falco

Supernova
Ethan Cohen
Glenn Sugden
Grace Biaelcki
Justin Lloyd
Mark Heising
Rad Antonov
Shaun Williams
Stephen Wilcox
Tristan Lucian Claudius Aurelius Tyacke

Hypernova
Daniel Muzquiz
Alex Kern
Ben Delo
Chuck Zegar
Dean Galvin
Donal Botkin
Gregory Forfa
Jeff White
John R. Slavik
Massimiliano Pala
PAUL C PEDERSEN
Scott Gorlick
Scott Gray
Spencer Jones
Vlad Shipulin
Zachary Haberman
Антон Кочков

Gamma Ray Burst
Jason Bowen
Aaron Pinto
Almog Cohen
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Austin Richards
Ayden Miller
Bert Whetstone
Bradley Jenkins
Bradley Ulis
Brandon Lattin
Cal Harrington
Cal Stephens
Cali Chuck
Chris Liao
Christopher Wade
Collin Dutrow
Craig Falls
Craig Stonaha
Dan Warren
Daniel Donahue
Daniel Jennings
Darrell Stewart
David Giltinan
David Johnston
Diana S Polijar
Donovan King
Doyle Vann
Eric Kiebler
Eric Raschke
Eric Schrenker
Faraz Khan
Frederic Simon
Harsh Khandhadia
Isaac Suttell
James Trimmier
Jeb Campbell
Jeff Harris
Jeremy Soller
Jerry Thomas
jim bartosh
John Anderson
John De Witt
John Funai
John H. Austin, Jr.
John Mieras USN Ret
Joseph Salomone
Junaid Ali
Justin Zheng
Kacper Cieśla
Kent Durham
Koen Wilde
Kurtis Kemple
Kyle Atkinson
Lori Ferris
Marcelo Garcia
Marion Lang
Mark Daniel Cohen
Mark Delagasse
Matt Kaprocki
Matthew Johnson
Michael Barton
Michael Clark
Michael Lev
Michael Purcell
Michael Spallino
Mikk Mihkel Nurges
Nicolas Katsantonis
Nils Anderson
Onemind
Paul Wood
Reuben Brewer
Richard Steenbergen
Robert DeChellis
Ross Kennedy
Ross Story
Russell Moore
SamSword
Sandhya Devi
Sean Owen
Shane Calimlim
Terje Vold
Terrance Cennon
Thomas Dougherty
Tybie Fitzhugh
WILLIAM HAY III
Zac Sweers

Do twin primes go on forever? Sponsored by Brilliant – Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to try Brilliant’s tutor for free, plus receive 20% off an annual Premium subscription

If you’re looking for a molecular modelling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Sign up for the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates – https://ve42.co/Newsletter

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▀▀▀

A huge thank you to Alex Kontorovich, Andrew Granville, James Maynard, Roger Heath-Brown, Dimitris Koukoulopoulos, Debmalya Basak & George Shakan for their invaluable expertise and contributions to this video!

▀▀▀
0:00 What are twin primes?
3:08 How To Find Prime Numbers
6:11 The Sieve of Eratosthenes
11:26 The Closest We’ve Come To Proving Twin Primes
15:54 Searching For A Bounded Gap
18:47 How A Subway Worker Changed The Game
29:20 Finding An Upper Bound
32:04 Maynard and Polymath
36:42 Will we solve the twin prime conjecture?

▀▀▀
References can be found here: https://ve42.co/TwinPrimesRefs

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, armedtoe, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Charles Ian Norman Venn, Daniel Martins, Data Don, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, EJ Alexandra, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, Hayden Christensen, Hong Thai Le, Ibby Hadeed, Jeromy Johnson, Jesse Brandsoy, Jon Jamison, Juan Benet, Kelcey Steele, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mark Heising, Martin Paull, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Moebiusol – Cristian, Orlando Bassotto, Parsee Health, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robson, Sam Lutfi, Shalva Bukia, Sinan Taifour, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, Vahe Andonians, wolfee

▀▀▀
Writers: Vibhor Pandey, Casper Mebius and Alex Kontorovich
Producer & Director: Vibhor Pandey
Presenters: Derek Muller & Casper Mebius
Editors: George Reynolds & Trenton Oliver
Camera Operators: Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Animators: Emma Wright, Andrew Neet, Alex Drakoulis, Domonkos Józsa & Fabio Albertelli
Illustrators: Jakub Misiek
Additional Editor: James Stuart
Researchers: Darius Garewal, Gabe Strong, Sophia Rose
Thumbnail Designers: Abdallah Rabah, Ben Powell, Daniel Ellacott & Patryk Ziolkowski
Production Team: Jess Bishop-Laggett, Matthew Cavanagh, Anna Milkovich & Josh Pitt
Executive Producers: Derek Muller, Casper Mebius & Emily Zhang

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

For 72 hours, enjoy 15% OFF on all Hoverpens with code PBS, or click the link https://noviumdesign.shop/PBS – Free shipping to most countries. Also on Amazon: https://noviumdesign.shop/crQH4A

We’ve been looking for messages from the stars ever since Frank Drake pointed the Green Bank radio telescope at Tau Ceti and Epsilon Eridany 65 years ago. He saw nothing that couldn’t be explained by natural causes. Nor have the much more extensive SETI surveys conducted since. So, maybe there are no alien signals to see. Or maybe we need to update how we search for them. We have, after all, learned an awful lot since 1960—both about the galaxy and about observing the galaxy.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: Mike Martin

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2026 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Alexander Tamas
Filip Rolenec
Juan Benet
Kenneth See
Mark Rosenthal
Matthew Ocko
Morgan Hough
Peter Barrett
Vinnie Falco
Daniel Muzquiz

Quasar
Ethan Cohen
Glenn Sugden
Grace Biaelcki
Justin Lloyd
Mark Heising
Rad Antonov
Shaun Williams
Stephen Wilcox
Tristan Lucian Claudius Aurelius Tyacke

Hypernova
Alex Kern
Ben Delo
Chuck Zegar
Dean Galvin
Donal Botkin
Gregory Forfa
Jeff White
John R. Slavik
Massimiliano Pala
PAUL C PEDERSEN
Scott Gorlick
Scott Gray
Spencer Jones
Vlad Shipulin
Zachary Haberman
Антон Кочков

Gamma Ray Burst
Alex Gan
aaron pinto
Almog Cohen
Anthony Leon
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Ayden Miller
Bradley Jenkins
Bradley Ulis
Brandon Lattin
Brian Cook
Chris Liao
Christopher Wade
Chuck Lukaszewski
Collin Dutrow
Craig Falls
Craig Stonaha
Dan Warren
Daniel Donahue
Daniel Jennings
Darrell Stewart
David Giltinan
David Johnston
Doyle Vann
Eric Kiebler
Eric Raschke
Eric Schrenker
Faraz Khan
Frederic Simon
gmmiddleton
Harsh Khandhadia
Isaac Suttell
James Trimmier
Jason Bowen
Jeb Campbell
Jeff Harris
Jeremy Soller
Jerry Thomas
jim bartosh
John Anderson
John De Witt
John Funai
John H. Austin, Jr.
Joseph Salomone
Junaid Ali
Kacper Cieśla
Kane Holbrook
Kent Durham
Koen Wilde
Kyle Atkinson
Lori Ferris
Marcelo Garcia
Marion Lang
Mark Daniel Cohen
Mark Delagasse
Matt Kaprocki
Matt Quinn
Matthew Johnson
Michael Barton
Michael Clark
Michael Lev
Michael Purcell
Mikk Mihkel Nurges
Nick Hoffenstoffer III
Nicolas Katsantonis
Onemind
Param Saxena
Paul Wood
Rad Antonov
Reuben Brewer
Richard Steenbergen
Robert DeChellis
Ross Kennedy
Ross Story
Russell Moore
SamSword
Sandhya Devi
Sean Owen
Shane Calimlim
SilentGnome
Terje Vold
Thomas Dougherty
Todd J Lerner
Tybie Fitzhugh
Zac Sweers

Displate’s offering up to up to for 41% off until the end of May at: https://displate.com/l/spacetime when you use the code: SPACETIME

For a while back there we might be able to avoid the black hole. They’d been lurking as shadows in our theories of gravity forever. Enough mass crammed into a small enough space would lead to a gravitational field at the surface from which not even light could escape from a surrounding surface that we call the event horizon. The event horizon generates paradoxes that worry physicists, and the singularity of infinite density within the black hole worries them even more. And so many brave physicists have fought for centuries to prove that these monsters don’t exist. They hoped nature would step in to save us from the theoretical horror of ultimate gravitational collapse. One of our final hopes is the Planck star—a ball of energy at the heart of the black hole like frozen shards of the Big Bang. Let’s hope they’re real, for physics’ sake.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Richard Dyer & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: Mike Martin

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2026 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Alexander Tamas
Filip Rolenec
Juan Benet
Kenneth See
Mark Rosenthal
Matthew Ocko
Morgan Hough
Peter Barrett
Vinnie Falco
Daniel Muzquiz

Quasar
Ethan Cohen
Glenn Sugden
Grace Biaelcki
Justin Lloyd
Mark Heising
Rad Antonov
Shaun Williams
Stephen Wilcox
Tristan Lucian Claudius Aurelius Tyacke

Hypernova
Alex Kern
Ben Delo
Chuck Zegar
Dean Galvin
Donal Botkin
Gregory Forfa
Jeff White
John R. Slavik
Massimiliano Pala
PAUL C PEDERSEN
Scott Gorlick
Scott Gray
Spencer Jones
Vlad Shipulin
Zachary Haberman
Антон Кочков

Learn More About Opera: https://opr.as/04-Opera-browser-pbsspacetime

The James Webb Space Telescope found galaxies that are too ancient-looking for our young universe. You may have heard that, but it keeps finding them, and our recent efforts to solve this conundrum point in wildly different directions. Have we found galaxies older than the universe, or did we just learn something incredible about how galaxies form?

Check Out Be Smart’s Mercator Map Episode
https://youtu.be/p-9wxYdJing?si=jtSFyennoEwRP7ob

And the Full Earth Month Playlist
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Thpt5krGevo&list=PLnNZYWyBGJ1F8ofFm4H9UTrHxqU8zngK4

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Search the Entire Space Time Library Here: https://search.pbsspacetime.com/

Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: Mike Martin

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2026 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Adam Van Winkle
Alexander Tamas
David Paryente
Juan Benet
Kenneth See
Mark Rosenthal
Morgan Hough
Peter Barrett
Vinnie Falco

Supernova
Ethan Cohen
Glenn Sugden
Grace Biaelcki
Justin Lloyd
Mark Heising
Stephen Wilcox
Tristan Lucian Claudius Aurelius Tyacke

Hypernova
Alex Kern
Ben Delo
Cal Stephens
chuck zegar
Dean Galvin
Donal Botkin
drollere
Gregory Forfa
jeff white
John R. Slavik
Massimiliano Pala
Mike Purvis
PAUL C PEDERSEN
Santiago
Scott Gorlick
Scott Gray
Spencer Jones
Stephen Saslow
Zachary Haberman
Антон Кочков
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst
Alex Gan
aaron pinto
Almog Cohen
Anthony Leon
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Ayden Miller
Bradley Jenkins
Bradley Ulis
Brandon Lattin
Brian Cook
Chris Liao
Christopher Wade
Chuck Lukaszewski
Collin Dutrow
Craig Falls
Craig Stonaha
Dan Warren
Daniel Donahue
Daniel Jennings
Darrell Stewart
David Giltinan
David Johnston
Doyle Vann
Eric Kiebler
Eric Raschke
Eric Schrenker
Faraz Khan
Frederic Simon
gmmiddleton
Harsh Khandhadia
Isaac Suttell
James Trimmier
Jason Bowen
Jeb Campbell
Jeff Harris
Jeremy Soller
Jerry Thomas
jim bartosh
John Anderson
John De Witt
John Funai
John H. Austin, Jr.
Joseph Salomone
Junaid Ali
Kacper Cieśla
Kane Holbrook
Kent Durham
Koen Wilde
Kyle Atkinson
Lori Ferris
Marcelo Garcia
Marion Lang
Mark Daniel Cohen
Mark Delagasse
Matt Kaprocki
Matt Quinn
Matthew Johnson
Michael Barton
Michael Clark
Michael Lev
Michael Purcell
Mikk Mihkel Nurges
Nick Hoffenstoffer III
Nicolas Katsantonis
Onemind
Param Saxena
Paul Wood
Rad Antonov
Reuben Brewer
Richard Steenbergen
Robert DeChellis
Ross Kennedy
Ross Story
Russell Moore
SamSword
Sandhya Devi
Sean Owen
Shane Calimlim
SilentGnome
Terje Vold
Thomas Dougherty
Todd J Lerner
Tybie Fitzhugh
Zac Sweers

The crystals that wiped out an HIV medication, almost overnight. Thanks to SoFi for sponsoring the video! Click here to sign-up for SoFi Checking and Savings: https://sofi.com/ve

In 2025, we launched the Elements of Truth game on Kickstarter and were thrilled by the response. We’re now in the final stages of production, with Kickstarter rewards shipping soon. If you missed the campaign, you can now pre-order the retail edition through our new website here -https://ve42.co/PolymorphsDesc

If you’re looking for a molecular modelling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Sign up for the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates – https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
Check out the excellent video by Reactions here: https://youtu.be/PccOwGEbtQU?si=NOpmaulDcoq6Kif-

This video was a huge collaborative effort!

Special thanks to…

Dr Andreas Kafizas for all his help with the Silver and Tin demonstrations, and staying up for those 14 hours with us monitoring the timelapse! As well as Conrad Duncan and the team at Imperial College London.

@ChrisYoungCooks for teaching Casper how to temper chocolate and @jameshoffmann and the team for letting us take over their studio; we had a great day!

Many thanks to Professor Adam Matzger, Professor Katharina Fromm and Professor Mike Zaworotko for taking the time to talk to us.

Also thank you to Dr. William McVicker and the British Institute of Organ Studies and Chris at Luciteria Science for helping us source our grey and white tin samples.

Correction: 11:45 should say carbon-nitrogen triple bond not double bond

▀▀▀
0:00 The Disease Infecting Miracle Medicine
4:20 An Explosive Feud
10:05 How The Same Compound Can Behave Two Different Ways
13:18 Polymorphs Of Chocolate
19:51 Why Ritonavir Stopped Working
22:57 The Tin Pest
27:28 Disappearing Polymorphs
30:20 Is Everything Polymorphic?

▀▀▀
References can be found here – https://ve42.co/PolymorphRefs

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, André Powell, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Bryan Ackermann, Cartier, Chris Brewer, Daniel Martins, Data Don, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, EJ Alexandra, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Hayden Christensen, Hong Thai Le, Ibby Hadeed, Jeromy Johnson, Jesse Brandsoy, Juan Benet, Kelcey Steele, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mark Heising, Martin Paull, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Parsee Health, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robson, Sam Lutfi, Shalva Bukia, Sinan Taifour, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, Vahe Andonians, William Yoon, wolfee

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Writers: Gabe Strong & Casper Mebius
Producer and Director: Gabe Strong
Presenters: Derek Muller & Casper Mebius
Editor: Trenton Oliver
Assistant Editor: James Stuart
Art Director: Mathias Hawk
Illustrators: Jakub Misiek, Emma Wright, Maria Gusakovich & Raphael Aubry
Animators: Fabio Albertelli, Andrew Neet, Emma Wright & Alex Drakoulis
Researcher: Sophia Rose
Additional Research: Callum Cuttle
Camera Operators: Rob Newman, Casper Mebius, Gabe Strong, Callum Cuttle & Derek Muller
Voice-over Artist: Gregor Čavlović
Thumbnail Designers: Abdallah Rabah, Ren Hurley & Ben Powell
Production Team: Jess Bishop-Laggett, Glen Griffiths, Mathew Cavanagh & Anna Milkovic
Executive Producers: Derek Muller, Casper Mebius & Gregor Čavlović
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound