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A huge thank you to those who helped us understand different aspects of this complicated topic – Dr. Ashmeet Singh, Supriya Krishnamurthy, Dr. Jos Thijssen, Dr. Bijoy Bera, Dr. Timon Idema, Álvaro Bermejillo Seco and Dr. Misha Titov.

▀▀▀
References:
Carnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the motive power of heat: and on machines fitted to develop that power. – https://ve42.co/Carnot1890

Harnessing The True Power Of Atoms | Order And Disorder Documentaries, Spark via YouTube – https://ve42.co/OrderDisorder

A better description of entropy, Steve Mould via YouTube – https://ve42.co/Mould2016

Dugdale, J. S. (1996). Entropy and its physical meaning. CRC Press. – https://ve42.co/Dugdale1996

Schroeder, D. V. (1999). An introduction to thermal physics. – https://ve42.co/Schroeder2021

Fowler, M. Heat Engines: the Carnot Cycle, University of Virginia. – https://ve42.co/Fowler2023

Chandler, D.L. (2010). Explained: The Carnot Limit, MIT News – https://ve42.co/Chandler2010

Entropy, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/EntropyWiki

Clausius, R. (1867). The mechanical theory of heat. Van Voorst. – https://ve42.co/Clausius1867

What is entropy? TED-Ed via YouTube – https://ve42.co/Phillips2017

Thijssen, J. (2018) Lecture Notes Statistical Physics, TU Delft.

Schneider, E. D., & Kay, J. J. (1994). Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematical and computer modelling, 19(6-8), 25-48. – https://ve42.co/Schneider1994

Lineweaver, C. H., & Egan, C. A. (2008). Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics. Physics of Life Reviews, 5(4), 225-242. – https://ve42.co/Lineweaver2008

Michaelian, K. (2012). HESS Opinions” Biological catalysis of the hydrological cycle: life’s thermodynamic function”. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(8), 2629-2645. – https://ve42.co/Michaelian2012

England, J. L. (2013). Statistical physics of self-replication. The Journal of chemical physics, 139(12), 09B623_1. – https://ve42.co/England2013

England, J. L. (2015). Dissipative adaptation in driven self-assembly. Nature nanotechnology, 10(11), 919-923. – https://ve42.co/England2015

Wolchover, N. (2014). A New Physics Theory of Life, Quantamagazine – https://ve42.co/Wolchover2014

Lineweaver, C. H. (2013). The entropy of the universe and the maximum entropy production principle. In Beyond the Second Law: Entropy Production and Non-equilibrium Systems (pp. 415-427). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. – https://ve42.co/LineweaverEntropy

Bekenstein, J.D. (1972). Black holes and the second law. Lett. Nuovo Cimento 4, 737–740. – https://ve42.co/Bekenstein1972

Carroll, S.M. (2022). The Biggest Ideas in the Universe: Space, Time, and Motion. Penguin Publishing Group. – https://ve42.co/Carroll2022

Black hole thermodynamics, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/BlackHoleTD

Cosmology and the arrow of time: Sean Carroll at TEDxCaltech, TEDx Talks via YouTube – https://ve42.co/CarrollTEDx

Carroll, S. M. (2008). The cosmic origins of time’s arrow. Scientific American, 298(6), 48-57. – https://ve42.co/Carroll2008

The Passage of Time and the Meaning of Life | Sean Carroll (Talk + Q&A), Long Now Foundation via YouTube – https://ve42.co/CarrollLNF

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Quantum mechanics is our best theory of the fundamental nature of reality, but it’s usually only distinguishable from familiar classical mechanics on the smallest scales. However, there are some fringe cases where its distinct features manifest on scales we can observe—in things like superfluids, or the interiors of collapsed stars. But it’s also possible that our entire galaxy is filled with a reverberating quantum mechanical wave that literally holds the galaxy together—and in fact explains all the dark matter that we see across the universe. And this isn’t even a fringe theory. It’s axionic dark matter.

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The humble proton may seem simple enough, and they’re certainly common. People are made of cells, cells are made of molecules, molecules are made of atoms, atoms are made of electrons, protons, and neutrons. And protons are each made of three up or down quarks. Simple stuff, right? All except for that last part. Protons are actually made of many, many quarks that happen to look like three only when we look at them in a particular way. And even then, sometimes they’re made of 5 quarks – including the charm quark.

Image Credit for 6:28 (https://youtu.be/TbzZIMQC6vk?feature=shared&t=388):
Proton Animation. Courtesy of James LaPlante, Sputnik Animation. © MIT and Jefferson Lab, 2021, All Rights Reserved. The Visualizing the Proton Project is presented by the MIT Center for Art, Science & Technology, Jefferson Lab, and US Department of Energy’s Office of Science.

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00:00 Introduction
01:24 The Physics of Scattering
03:06 Using Electrons To Study Protons
04:11 3 Quark Proton Model
05:28 The Quark Sea
06:56 Charm Quark Evidence
08:04 Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Particle
09:51 The Uncertainty of Proton Experiments
11:09 QCD & Heisenberg Uncertainty
12:33 Proving the Theory of Intrinsic Charm
13:41 Testing Intrinsic Charm with AI

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Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Jake Meney for showing us the spiders and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. https://www.reptilepark.com.au

Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson with his help and answering our questions.

Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the antivenom production process.

▀▀▀
References:

Pineda, S. S., Sollod, B. L., Wilson, D., Darling, A., Sunagar, K., Undheim, E. A., … & King, G. F. (2014). Diversification of a single ancestral gene into a successful toxin superfamily in highly venomous Australian funnel-web spiders. BMC genomics, 15(1), 1-16 – https://ve42.co/Pineda2014

Isbister, G. K., Gray, M. R., Balit, C. R., Raven, R. J., Stokes, B. J., Porges, K., … & Fisher, M. M. (2005). Funnel-web spider bite: a systematic review of recorded clinical cases. Medical journal of Australia, 182(8), 407-411 – https://ve42.co/Isbister2005

Herzig, V., Sunagar, K., Wilson, D. T., Pineda, S. S., Israel, M. R., Dutertre, S., … & Fry, B. G. (2020). Australian funnel-web spiders evolved human-lethal δ-hexatoxins for defense against vertebrate predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(40), 24920-24928 – https://ve42.co/Herzig2020

Nicholson, G. M., & Graudins, A. (2002). Spiders of medical importance in the Asia–Pacific: Atracotoxin, latrotoxin and related spider neurotoxins. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 29(9), 785-794 – https://ve42.co/Nicholson2002

Fletcher, J. I., Chapman, B. E., Mackay, J. P., Howden, M. E., & King, G. F. (1997). The structure of versutoxin (δ-atracotoxin-Hv1) provides insights into the binding of site 3 neurotoxins to the voltage-gated sodium channel. Structure, 5(11), 1525-1535 – https://ve42.co/Fletcher1997

Australian Reptile Park. (2022). Snake and Spider First Aid – https://ve42.co/ARPFirstAid

The Australian Museum. (20 ). Spider facts – https://ve42.co/SpiderFacts

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Written by Katie Barnshaw & Derek Muller
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The deaths of massive stars results in one of the most beautiful and violent events in the universe: the supernova. They are so luminous we can see them here on Earth and historical records show that we can even see them into the day. But supernovas release deadly and violent radiation that could destroy our atmosphere. So how far away do these supernova have to be for humanity to be safe? And when will the next supernova occur

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There’s a strange number system, featured in the work of a dozen Fields Medalists, that helps solve problems that are intractable with real numbers. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: https://snatoms.com

▀▀▀
References:

Koblitz, N. (2012). p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (Vol. 58). Springer Science & Business Media.

Amazing intro to p-adic numbers here: https://youtu.be/3gyHKCDq1YA
Excellent series on p-adic numbers: https://youtu.be/VTtBDSWR1Ac
Great videos by James Tanton: @JamesTantonMath

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Written by Derek Muller and Alex Kontorovich
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Interstellar travel is horrible-what with the cramped quarters of your spaceship and only the thin hull separating you from deathly cold and deadly cosmic rays. Much safer to stay on here Earth with our gloriously habitable biosphere, protective magnetic field, and endless energy from the Sun. But what if we could have the best of all worlds? No pun intended. What if we could turn our entire solar system into a spaceship and drive the Sun itself around the galaxy? Well, I don’t know if we definitely can, but we might not not be able to.

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The weird rules of quantum mechanics lead to all sorts of bizarre phenomena on tiny scales— particles teleporting through walls or being in multiple places at once or simultaneously existing and not. Shame all this magical behavior doesn’t happen on scales large enough for us to see. Except that there is a way for us to see large-scale quantum weirdness, and that’s Bose-Einstein Condensates & Superfluids.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Fernando Franco Felix & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini, Adriano Leal & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is produced by Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2023 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang Sponsors
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Sean Maddox
Alexander Tamas
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Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
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Mathew
Donal Botkin
John Pollock
Edmund Fokschaner
chuck zegar
Jordan Young
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst Supporters
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Cole Combs
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
Ryan Moser
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John Anderson
David Giltinan
Scott Hannum
Bradley Ulis
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Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
teng guo
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Matt Langford
Harsh Khandhadia
Thomas Tarler
Susan Albee
Frank Walker
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Andre Stechert
Paul Wood
Kent Durham
Ramon Nogueira
Paul Suchy
Ellis Hall
John H. Austin, Jr.
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Alex Edwards
Daniel Jennings
Cameron Sampson
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Andrew Mann
Isaac Suttell
Bleys Goodson
Robert Walter
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Nickolas Andrew Freeman
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Robert Ilardi
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Graydon Goss
Frederic Simon
Dmitiri McGuiness
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
Alex Gan
David Barnholdt
David Neal
John Funai
Bradley Jenkins
Vlad Shipulin
Cody Brumfield
Thomas Dougherty
King Zeckendorff
Dan Warren
Patrick Sutton
John Griffith
Dean Faulk

Welcome to Micromouse, the fastest maze-solving competition on Earth. Join Onshape’s community of over 3 million CAD users by creating a free account here: https://Onshape.pro/Veritasium.

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join this community to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Peter Harrison for all of his help introducing us to the world of Micromouse – check out https://ukmars.org & https://micromouseonline.com.
Thank you to David Otten, APEC, and the All-Japan Micromouse Competition for having us.
Thank you to Juing-Hei (https://www.youtube.com/@suhu9379) & Derek Hall (https://www.youtube.com/@MicroMouse) for usage of their micromouse videos.
Thank you to John McBride, Yusaku Kanagawa, and Katie Barnshaw for their help with Japanese translations.

▀▀▀
References:
Claude Shannon Demonstrates Machine Learning, AT&T Tech Channel Archive – https://ve42.co/ClaudeShannon
Mighty mouse, MIT News Magazine – https://ve42.co/MightyMouse
History, Micromouse Online Blog – https://ve42.co/MMHistory
Christiansen, D. (1977). Spectral lines: Announcing the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 27-27 – https://ve42.co/Christiansen1977
Allan, R. (1979). Microprocessors: The amazing micromice: See how they won: Probing the innards of the smartest and fastest entries in the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 62-65, – https://ve42.co/Allan1979
1977-79 – “MOONLIGHT SPECIAL” Battelle Inst. (American), CyberNetic Zoo – https://ve42.co/MoonlightSpecial
Christiansen, D. (2014). The Amazing MicroMouse Roars On. Spectral Lines – https://ve42.co/Christiansen2014
1986 – MicroMouse history, competition & how it got started in the USA, via YouTube – https://ve42.co/MMArchiveYT
The first World Micromouse Contest in Tsubuka, Japan, August 1985 [1/2] by TKsTclip via YouTube – https://ve42.co/MMTsukubaYT
IEEE. (2018). Micromouse Competition Rules – https://ve42.co/IEEERules
Tondra, D. (2004). The Inception of Chedda: A detailed design and analysis of micromouse. University of Nevada – https://ve42.co/Tondra2004
Braunl, T. (1999). Research relevance of mobile robot competitions. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 32-37 – https://ve42.co/Braunl1999
All Japan Micromouse 2017 by Peter Harrison, Micromouse Online – https://ve42.co/RedComet
Winning record of the national competition micromouse (half size) competition. mm3sakusya @ wiki (Google translated from Japanese) – https://ve42.co/JapanFinishTimes
The Fosbury Flop—A Game-Changing Technique, Smithsonian Magazine – https://ve42.co/FosburyFlop
Gold medal winning heights in the Men’s and Women’s high jump at the Summer Olympics from 1896 to 2020, Statistica – https://ve42.co/HighJump
Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., & Soon, P. L. (2016). Design and realization of two-wheel micro-mouse diagonal dashing. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 31(4), 2299-2306. – https://ve42.co/Zhang2016
Micromouse Turn List, Keri’s Lab – https://ve42.co/MMTurns
Green Ye via YouTube – https://ve42.co/Greenye
Classic Micromouse, Excel 9a. Demonstrate fan suction, by TzongYong Khiew via YouTube – https://ve42.co/MMFanYT
Vacuum Micromouse by Eliot, HACKADAY – https://ve42.co/MMVacuum

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
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▀▀▀
Written by Tom Lum and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello
Coordinated by Emily Zhang
Filmed by Yusaku Kanagawa, Emily Zhang, and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley and Ignat Berbeci
References by Katie Barnshaw
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

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Whenever we open a new window on the universe, we discover things that no one expected. Our newfound ability to measure ripples in the fabric of spacetime—gravitational waves—is a very new window, and so far we’ve seen a lot of wild stuff. We’ve observed black holes colliding, and their oddly high masses challenges our understanding of black hole formation and growth. We’ve seen colliding neutron stars that have forced us to rewrite our ideas of how many of the elements of the periodic table get made. But what else might be hiding in the ripples’ of spacetime? Oh, I know: how about the gravitational wakes caused by planet-sized alien spacecraft accelerating to near light speed.

Episode Companion Playlist:
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Sign up for the mailing list to get episode notifications and hear special announcements!
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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt Caplan & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini, & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is produced by Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2023 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang Sponsors
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
David Neumann
Sean Maddox
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Fabrice Eap
Mark Rosenthal

Quasar Sponsors
Vivaan Vaka
Glenn Sugden
Alex Kern
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
Christina Oegren
Mark Heising

Hypernova Sponsors
Chris Webb
Zachray Wilson
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Kirk Honour
Joe Moreira
Bradley Voorhees
Marc Armstrong
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
John R. Slavik
Mathew
Donal Botkin
John Pollock
Edmund Fokschaner
chuck zegar
Jordan Young
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst Supporters
Matthew Oldfield
Lucas Kazakevicius
Massimiliano Pala
Thomas Nielson
Joe Pavlovic
Ryan McGaughy
Chuck Lukaszewski
Edward Hodapp
Cole Combs
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
Ryan Moser
Jonathan Cordovano
John Anderson
David Giltinan
Scott Hannum
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
teng guo
Mason Dillon
Matt Langford
Harsh Khandhadia
Thomas Tarler
Susan Albee
Frank Walker
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Andre Stechert
Paul Wood
Kent Durham
Ramon Nogueira
Paul Suchy
Ellis Hall
John H. Austin, Jr.
Diana S Poljar
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Alex Edwards
Daniel Jennings
Cameron Sampson
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Andrew Mann
Isaac Suttell
Bleys Goodson
Robert Walter
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Nickolas Andrew Freeman
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Robert Ilardi
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Graydon Goss
Frederic Simon
Dmitri McGuiness
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
Alex Gan
David Barnholdt
David Neal
John Funai
Bradley Jenkins
Jiri Borkovec
Vlad Shipulin
Cody Brumfield
Thomas Dougherty
Dan Warren
Patrick Sutton
John Griffith
Dean Faulk