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Did you know that many of us have up to 4% neanderthal DNA? And that 100% of your DNA may come from outer space? No joke. The biochemistry that defined the coding system of your DNA may have happened off-world, and perhaps even long before Earth existed.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Christoper Pollack & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
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Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2025 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Tj Steyn
Wojciech Szymski
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Supernova
Grace Biaelcki
Glenn Sugden
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
The Tyacke boys
Mark Heising

Hypernova
Ulrich and Alexandre Francois
Spencer Jones
Dean Galvin
Michael Tidwell
Stephen Spidle
Massimiliano Pala
Justin Lloyd
David Giltinan
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Alex Kern
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Mathew
Donal Botkin
chuck zegar
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst
Ty Floyd
Niklos
Bryan White
Eric Raschke
aaron pinto
Kacper Cieśla
Satwik Pani
Param Saxena
John De Witt
Nathaniel Bennett
Sandhya Devi
Michael Oulvey
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Mike Purvis
Christopher Wade
Anthony Crossland
treborg777
Stephen Saslow
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Nick Hoffenstoffer III
Lori Ferris
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Richard Steenbergen
gmmiddleton
Joe Pavlovic
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B Combs
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
Harsh Khandhadia
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Rad Antonov
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Kent Durham
jim bartosh
John H. Austin, Jr.
Diana S
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
Tonyface
Michael Purcell
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Justin Waters
Thomas Dougherty
Zac Sweers
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone

Does light take all possible paths at the same time? 🌏 Get exclusive NordVPN deal here ➵ https://NordVPN.com/veritasium It’s risk free with Nord’s 30 day money-back guarantee!✌

A massive thank you to Dr. Andrew Mitchell for all his help and expertise. If you want to delve further into this topic then we highly recommend his lecture on Classical physics derived from quantum mechanics: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iuLwWDYC4U&t=1s

We’re incredibly grateful to Prof. David Kaiser, Prof. Steven Strogatz, Prof. Geraint F. Lewis, Elba Alonso-Monsalve, Prof. Christopher S. Baird, Prof. Anthony Bloch, and Prof. Stephen Bartlett for their invaluable contributions to this video.

A special thanks to Mahesh Shenoy from FloatHeadPhysics for his help with this video. Check out his excellent intuitive video on the UV Catastrophe here (Sep 2024): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALEDjjAVZSY

We have a tabletop game launching! Pledge your support now – https://ve42.co/KickStarterD

▀▀▀
0:00 What path does light travel?
2:40 Black Body Radiation
6:47 How did Planck solve the ultraviolet catastrophe?
9:42 The Quantum of Action
13:25 De Broglie’s Hypothesis
15:16 The Double Slit Experiment
20:00 How Feynman Did Quantum Mechanics
25:01 Proof That Light Takes Every Path
31:16 The Theory of Everything

▀▀▀
Sign up to our Patreon to watch the Q&A for free: https://www.patreon.com/c/veritasium

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▀▀▀
References:
Armin Hermann (Nov 1974). The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899-1913). – https://ve42.co/genquanttheor
Richard P. Feynman (1985). QED The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. – https://ve42.co/qed
A fantastic book on the history of the Principle of Least Action: Rojo, A. and Bloch, A. The
Principle of Least Action: History and Physics. – https://ve42.co/Bloch2018
Coopersmith, J. (2017). The lazy universe: an introduction to the principle of least action. Oxford University Press. – https://ve42.co/LazyU
PBS Space Time. (Nov 2021) – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_CQDSlmboA
Sabine Hossenfelder. (May 2022) – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0da8TEeaeE
Max Planck (1901). On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum. Annalen der Physik – https://ve42.co/lawdistenergy
Paul Ehrenfest (1911). Welche Züge der Lichtquantenhypothese spielen in der Theorie der Wärmestrahlung eine wesentliche Rolle?. Wiley Online Library – https://ve42.co/quantthermrad
Nils-Erik Bomark and Reidun Renstrøm (Aug 2023). The Ultraviolet myth. Proceedings of Science – https://ve42.co/uvmyth
Planck’s law. In Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/planckslaw
PBS Space Time. (Jul 2017). – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSFRN-ymfgE&t=10s
Einstein and The Photoelectric Effect. (Jan 2005) via APS News – https://ve42.co/einsteinphotoelec
Louis de Broglie (1924). On the Theory of Quanta. – https://ve42.co/theoryquanta
Larry Sorensen (2012). Path Integrals 1. University of Washington – https://ve42.co/pathintegrals
Feynman’s Method of “A Particle Exploring All Possible Paths”. (Mar 2018) via Pure Dhamma – https://ve42.co/allposspaths

Additional References – https://ve42.co/AdditionalReferences-PoLA2

Images & Video:
Nobistor Altona 1880 via NDR – https://ve42.co/streetlight
Edison incandescent lights by William J. Hammer via Wikimedia Commons – https://ve42.co/edinclights
The full expanded form of the Standard Model Lagrangian by Chen Ning Yang et al. via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/stmodellang
Muon Ray. (2011). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QUj2ZRUa7c
Muon Ray. (2011). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1C7abO7LtV0
Bohrs Atomic Model via EEEGUIDE.COM – https://ve42.co/bohrmodel

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, qiaohui wei, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee

▀▀▀
Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver and Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Andrew Neet and Emma Wright
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek, Tommy A. Steven and Cainejan Esperanza
Filmed by Derek Muller and Casper Mebius
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Rob Beasley Spence, Gabe Strong, Geeta Thakur, Emilia Gyles, Zoe Heron, Emily Zhang and Tori Brittain

Thumbnail contributions by Ignat Berbeci, Ben Powell, Jakub Misiek, Ren Hurley, and Peter Sheppard

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord!
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How did the universe begin? How can something come from nothing? One way to “solve” this most difficult of philosophical conundrums is to avoid it altogether. Maybe the universe didn’t begin. Maybe the Big Bang was just one in an endless cycle.

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Richard Dyer & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2024 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:
Big Bang
Wojciech Szymski
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Supernova
Grace Biaelcki
Glenn Sugden
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
The Tyacke boys
Mark Heising

Hypernova
Ulrich and Alexandre Francois
Spencer Jones
Dean Galvin
Michael Tidwell
Stephen Spidle
Massimiliano Pala
Justin Lloyd
David Giltinan
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Alex Kern
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Donal Botkin
chuck zegar
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst
Bryan White
Eric Raschke
Aaron Pinto
Kacper Cieśla
Satwik Pani
Param Saxena
John De Witt
Nathaniel Bennett
Sandhya Devi
Michael Oulvey
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Mike Purvis
Christopher Wade
Anthony Crossland
Grace Seraph
Stephen Saslow
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Lori Ferris
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Richard Steenbergen
Joe Pavlovic
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B. Combs
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
Harsh Khandhadia
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Rad Antonov
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Kent Durham
Jim Bartosh
John H. Austin, Jr.
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
Jim Hudson
Michael Purcell
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Vlad Shipulin
Justin Waters
Thomas Dougherty
Zac Sweers
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone

Are you smart enough to solve this Google interview question? Use code veritasium at https://incogni.com/veritasium to get an exclusive 60% off an annual Incogni plan.

A massive thank you to Dan Goldman, Jeff Aguilar, Daniel Soto and Georgia Tech’s Complex Rheology And Biomechanics Lab
We’re incredibly grateful to Carl Zimmer, Gayle McDowell, and Geoffrey West

Correction: Dan Goldman is a Professor of Physics not Biomechanics.

We have a tabletop game launching! Pledge your support now – https://ve42.co/KickStarterD

▀▀▀
0:00 Hard Google Interview Question
2:34 How do Geckos stick to walls?
5:58 Do physicists know the answer?
7:01 The Square-Cube Law
9:10 Tiny Superheroes
10:23 Simulating the problem
13:36 Adding Air Resistance
15:14 The End?
16:16 What would happen if you were shrunk?
17:39 What interviewers actually look for

▀▀▀
Try Snatoms! A molecular modelling kit I invented where the atoms snap together.
https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

▀▀▀
References:
William Poundstone (Jan 2012). Are You Smart Enough to Work at Google?. – https://ve42.co/smartenough
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. Translated by Paul Maquet (1989). On the Movement of Animals. – https://ve42.co/borellianimals
In Head-Hunting, Big Data May Not Be Such a Big Deal. (Jun 2013) via New York Times – https://ve42.co/headhuntbigdata
Drag Forces. via Lumen Learning – https://ve42.co/dragforces
R. McN. Alexander (Feb 1995). Leg design and jumping technique for humans, other vertebrates and insects. The Royal Society Publishing – https://ve42.co/legdesignjump
Sharon B. Emerson (Sep 1978). Allometry and Jumping in Frogs: Helping the Twain to Meet. JSTOR – https://ve42.co/allometryfrogs
Jay J. Meyers, Anthony Herrel & James Birch (Jan 2002). Scaling of Morphology, Bite Force and Feeding Kinematics in an Iguanian and a Scleroglossan Lizard. Anthony Herrel – https://ve42.co/scalinglizard
Kirby TJ, McBride JM, Haines TL, Dayne AM. (Aug 2011). Relative Net Vertical Impulse Determines Jumping Performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics – https://ve42.co/jumpperformance
Rasmussen Mette H. et al (Jul 2022). Evidence that gecko setae are coated with an ordered nanometre-thin lipid film. The Royal Society Publishing – https://ve42.co/geckosetae
Body Orientation During a Skydive. via Libre Texts Physics – https://ve42.co/skydivephysics

▀▀▀
Images & Video:
Here’s how many Google interviews it takes to hire a Googler. (Apr 2019) via CNBC Make It – https://ve42.co/googleinterviews
Google received 3.3 million job applications in 2019. (Jan 2020) via Axios – https://ve42.co/googleapplications
Here’s why you only have a 0.2% chance of getting hired at Google. (Oct 2014) via Quartz – https://ve42.co/hiredgoogle
Dear Reddit, my friend was asked this RIDICULOUS question in a job interview, what’s the best possible answer?. (2011) via Reddit – https://ve42.co/redditblender
Mark Rober. (May 2020) Backyard Squirrel Maze 1.0- Ninja Warrior Course https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFZFjoX2cGg
Cambridge University. (Feb 2010) Cambridge Ideas – Sticky Feet https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hd5upt3IrWM
IV C. (Oct 2023)Incredible Shrinking Man (1957) Jack Arnold. The spider scene. El increíble hombre menguante. Araña https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJiJsbBBHpE&t=7s
Russ Amy. (Apr 2018) Honey I Shrunk the Kids 1989 1080p BluRay X264 AMIABLE mkv https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byxGZ8cD7rk
R Sisters Gaming. (Feb 2022) It Takes Two – Destroyed by the Blender https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QqrPufq2jP8
ClipsyBox. (May 2017) Hulk vs. Ant-Man – Coca-Cola: Coke Mini https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMkGwCw7iv8
El Gato. (June 2021) Squirrel has 44″ vertical jump straight up to bird feeder! jumping https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ethwLHw46JM
A-purpose . (Apr 2024). Who can jump bigger part #2 via Youtube – https://www.youtube.com/shorts/mJhf7wYNkYA

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, qiaohui wei, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee

▀▀▀
Directed by Henry van Dyck
Written by Henry van Dyck
Edited by Peter Nelson and Nick Lear
Assistant Edited by James Stuart
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Andrew Neet, Jakub Misiek and Emma Wright
Filmed by Henry van Dyck and Lukas Guderjahn
Additional Research by Emilia Gyles and Geeta Thakur
Produced by Derek Muller, Henry van Dyck, Zoe Heron, Rob Beasley Spence and Tori Brittain
Thumbnail contributions by Ben Powell, Ren Hurley and Henry van Dyck
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman

I traveled to Yaxchilan on the Mexican/Guatemalan border and stumbled upon the legend of the Little People who used to rule parts of the Mayan empire. This travel experience to these amazing Mayan Ruins was full of adventure and exploration.

If you would like to support my work, please consider buying my book “Enigmatic North America: Legends, Oddities, and Controversial History” available on Amazon – https://www.amazon.com/Enigmatic-North-America-Oddities-Controversial/dp/B0CLK35R13/ref=sr_1_1?crid=12M38OTOR0YNQ&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.BzfCFo3xV016MxMaeF0JOaqrlFEHi3Qt3y4ulU79pZjn2m9BuFRenbxRch2YKVmUVW4RYeGYHkF_GOGW9TVf2UJykC3P9OqnV-CF5D0l7bMVJ7fSZXQxURwAhv8ufTnxp7VyIJ3cYe9dzLfcxJA_e6OJCKhzAX3RsF8CpP3hEBlvwq7YCBRjHH_q0e66PVZtav0fYY5h1Us-sDNQ5Gxuk_dHLqqSaq3EpqSoq-205Mc.MPx9PR3X9TQsCP65qnKCDTWXZKp4wtwtLHqh3tmww8I&dib_tag=se&keywords=enigmatic+north+america&qid=1739635696&sprefix=enigmatic+north+ameraps258&sr=8-1

What is the optimal strategy for bowling? #science #veritasium #physics #bowling

Thanks to Radiacode for sponsoring this video. Use the promo code “PBS” to get an exclusive 10% discount at: https://103.radiacode.com/PBS

They say fusion is 50 years away, no matter when you ask. Then why are billions suddenly being pumped into fusion startups? Yes to train LLMs, but there’s a reason the technobrats are bullish on fusion in particular. The fact is, the technological challenges have been chipped away and in many cases solved over the past decades, and there’s really no one deal-breaker difficulty remaining. One of the final challenges is deciding on the physical vessel to contain our mini artificial stars–and we have some pretty sci-fi options that are nearly ready to go.

PBS Member Stations rely on viewers like you. To support your local station, go to:http://to.pbs.org/DonateSPACE

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Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt Caplan, Jake Mitstifer, & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producer: Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2024 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang
Wojciech Szymski
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Supernova
Grace Biaelcki
Glenn Sugden
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
The Tyacke boys
Mark Heising

Hypernova
Ulrich and Alexandre Francois
Spencer Jones
Dean Galvin
Michael Tidwell
Stephen Spidle
Massimiliano Pala
Justin Lloyd
David Giltinan
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Alex Kern
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Donal Botkin
chuck zegar
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst
Bryan White
Eric Raschke
Aaron Pinto
Kacper Cieśla
Satwik Pani
Param Saxena
John De Witt
Nathaniel Bennett
Sandhya Devi
Michael Oulvey
Arko Provo Mukherjee
Mike Purvis
Christopher Wade
Anthony Crossland
Grace Seraph
Stephen Saslow
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Lori Ferris
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Richard Steenbergen
Joe Pavlovic
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B. Combs
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
Harsh Khandhadia
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Rad Antonov
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Kent Durham
Jim Bartosh
John H. Austin, Jr.
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
Jim Hudson
Michael Purcell
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Vlad Shipulin
Justin Waters
Thomas Dougherty
Zac Sweers
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone

In this video I go hiking in Eastern Utah searching for petroglyphs, pictographs, and incredible history. This was an amazing adventure through the Utah Canyonlands. If you would like to support my work, please consider buying my book “Enigmatic North America: Legends, Oddities, and Controversial History” available on Amazon – https://www.amazon.com/Enigmatic-North-America-Oddities-Controversial/dp/B0CLK35R13/ref=sr_1_1?crid=IYKVS9N50ZOZ&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.BzfCFo3xV016MxMaeF0JOaqrlFEHi3Qt3y4ulU79pZgONzRJkvgC5eMZmgtxZNTu78GZwaDV3e-D7jfmHmG8Y4cGDxhrRhN74cikSZEX2RF-bJpNwWtjFDQ70iaogf1r43npU-CzQzS2k0oKampzpVAO–yRjzpN5tSI8UzgrZt3ILb-9iUZX7vfl75sm0lOav0fYY5h1Us-sDNQ5Gxuky2t2qes0bG17hYdDRE6Z7M.OLIJN75PqNrlseXXJDX165Z07_3SJTDlf0enwQ84cNw&dib_tag=se&keywords=Enigmatic+North+america&qid=1739279980&sprefix=enigmatic+north+ameriaps254&sr=8-1

Music by COAG

The biggest problems in the world might be solved by tiny molecules unlocked using AI. Take your big idea online today with https://ve42.co/hostinger – code VE at checkout.

A huge thank you to John Jumper and Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool at Google Deepmind; and to David Baker and the Institute for Protein Design at the University of Washington for their invaluable expertise and explanations.

We’re incredibly grateful to Juanita Bagawan and Lucie Kerley at Google Deepmind, and Ian C. Haydon at the UW Institute for Protein Design for their assistance with some of the animation and imagery used in this video.

Special thanks to those at Google DeepMind Production Studios for their help interviewing John Jumper:
Director – Bernardo Resende
Director of Photography – Robert Messere
Senior Audio Technician – Perry Rogantin
Senior Production Coordinator – Sarah Ellen Morton
Studio Manager – Nicholas Duke

For more on this topic head over to our Patreon for the exclusive extended interview https://www.patreon.com/posts/patreon-with-cut-122274530?utm_medium=clipboard_copy&utm_source=copyLink&utm_campaign=postshare_creator&utm_content=join_link

▀▀▀
0:00 How to determine protein structures
3:50 Why are proteins so complicated?
5:34 The CASP Competition and Deep Mind
9:08 How does Alphafold work?
12:06 3 ways to get better AI
14:24 What is a Transformer in AI?
17:15 The Structure Module
18:35 Alphafold 2 wins the Nobel Prize
20:36 Designing New Proteins – RF Diffusion
22:58 The Future of AI

▀▀▀
Try Snatoms! A molecular modelling kit I invented where the atoms snap together.
https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates – https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
References and Credits:
How AI Revolutionized Protein Science, but Didn’t End It. (Jun 2024) via Quanta Magazine – https://ve42.co/airev
Jumper, J., Evans, R., Pritzel, A. et al. (Jul 2021). Highly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold. Nature – https://ve42.co/alphafoldtwo
Senior, A.W., Evans, R., Jumper, J. et al. (Jan 2020). Improved protein structure prediction using potentials from deep learning. Nature – https://ve42.co/alphafold
R Zwanzig, A Szabo, B Bagchi (Jan 1992). Levinthal’s paradox. PMC, National Institute of Health – https://ve42.co/levparadox
Khatib, F., DiMaio, F., Foldit Contenders Group. et al. (Sept 2011). Crystal structure of a monomeric retroviral protease solved by protein folding game players. Nature – https://ve42.co/proteinfoldingsolved
DeepMind co-founder: Gaming inspired AI breakthrough. (Dec 2020) via BBC – https://ve42.co/aibreakthrough
3Blue1Brown. (Apr 2024). Transformers (how LLMs work) explained visually | DL5 via Youtube – https://ve42.co/transformers
AlphaFold impact stories. via Deepmind Blog – https://ve42.co/foldimpact
Quanta Magazine. (Oct 2024). How AI Cracked the Protein Folding Code and Won a Nobel Prize via Youtube – https://ve42.co/proteinfolding
Looking Glass Universe. (Apr 2024). how AlphaFold *actually* works via Youtube – https://ve42.co/foldworks
Google DeepMind. (Nov 2020). AlphaFold: The making of a scientific breakthrough via Youtube – https://ve42.co/alphafoldvideo
Nobel Prize. (Dec 2024). 2024 Nobel Prize lectures in chemistry | David Baker, Demis Hassabis and John Jumper via Youtube – https://ve42.co/nobelchem
The AlphaFold2 Method Paper: A Fount of Good Ideas. (Jul 2021) via moalquraishi.wordpress – https://ve42.co/Alphafoldpaper
Why Don’t We Have More Protein-Protein Drug Molecules? (Dec 2009) via Science – https://ve42.co/proteindrugmol
Data sonification. via Carla Scaletti – https://ve42.co/datasonification

Images & Video:
Available here – https://ve42.co/alphafoldvisuals

And if you want to learn more about how we have been making antivenom check out our previous video How Horses Save Humans From Snakebites – https://ve42.co/veantivenom

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, I. H., Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Spilmann Reed, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee

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Directed by Sumeet Kulkarni
Written by Sumeet Kulkarni, Derek Muller and Zoe Heron
Edited by Jack Saxon
Animated by Ivy Tello, Emma Wright, Andrew Neet and Fabio Albertelli
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek
Filmed and demos done by Sumeet Kulkarni
Additional research by Geeta Thakur, Vincent Cheng and Emilia Gyles
Produced by Sumeet Kulkarni, Derek Muller, Zoe Heron, Rob Beasley Spence and Tori Brittain
Thumbnail contributions by Ren Hurley, Peter Sheppard and Ben Powell
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Here’s what happens when you just keep zooming in. Use code veritasium at https://incogni.com/veritasium to get an exclusive 60% off an annual Incogni plan.

A big thank you to Magnus Garbrecht from the University of Sydney for showing us around the lab and for his feedback on the script.

Special thanks to Quentin Ramasse for his expertise on the video.

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates – https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
0:00 Why is it hard to see atoms?
2:12 How does an electron microscope work?
4:09 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
5:11 Spherical Aberration
8:55 Field Ion Microscope
11:05 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)
13:24 Probe microscopes
14:02 An unlikely solution
18:08 Seeing atoms

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Join us on Patreon for early access videos, bonus content, and to support Veritasium! https://ve42.co/PatreonDE

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, and wolfee

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

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References:
Busch, H. (1926). Berechnung der Bahn von Kathodenstrahlen im axialsymmetrischen elektromagnetischen Felde. Annalen Der Physik – https://ve42.co/Busch1926
Ruska, E. (1986). The development of the electron microscope and of electron microscopy. Nobel Lecture – https://ve42.co/Ruska1986
Scherzer, O. (1936) – https://ve42.co/Scherzer1936
Jensen, G. (2015). Part 1: EM Lenses. Caltech – https://ve42.co/Jensen2015
Field Ion Microscope via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/FieldIon
Transmission Electron Microscope via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/MicroscopeTEM
Albert V. Crewe biography via UChicagoNews Microscopy Society of America – https://ve42.co/CreweBio
McMullan, D. (1993). Scanning Electron Microscopy 1928 – 1965. Microscopy Society of America, Cincinnati – https://ve42.co/McMullan1993
Electric and Magnetic Field Lenses via MIT – https://ve42.co/LensesMIT
Haider, M. et al. (1998). Towards 0.1 nm resolution with the first spherically corrected transmission electron microscope. Journal of Electron Microscopy – https://ve42.co/Haider1998_1
Haider, M. et al. (1998). Electron microscopy image enhanced. Nature – https://ve42.co/Haider1998_2
Krivanek, O. et al. (2022). Aberration correction in the STEM. CRC Press EBooks – https://ve42.co/Krivanek2022
Crewe, A. V., et al. (1970). Visibility of Single Atoms. Science – https://ve42.co/Crewe1970
Secrets of Size: Atoms to Supergalaxies via the BBC – https://ve42.co/AtomsBBC
Pennycook, S. J. (2012). Seeing the atoms more clearly: STEM imaging from the Crewe era to today. Ultramicroscopy – https://ve42.co/Pennycook2012
Rose, H. H. (2009). Historical aspects of aberration correction. Journal of Electron Microscopy – https://ve42.co/Rose2009
Kavli Prize in Nanoscience via kavliprize.org – https://ve42.co/Kavli2020
Vogt, T. (2019) Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy – https://ve42.co/Vogt2019

Images & Video:
Available here – https://ve42.co/AtomsVisuals

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Directed by Gregor Čavlović, Derek Muller, and Tim Usborne
Written by Gregor Čavlović, Tim Usborne, Emily Zhang, and Casper Mebius
Edited by Trenton Oliver and Charlie Grayley
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Emma Wright, and Andrew Neet
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek and Maria Gusakovich
Filmed by Charles Clements
Additional research by Gabe Strong, Geeta Thakur, and Emili Gyles
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Emily Zhang, Gregor Čavlović, Rob Beasley Spence, Tori Brittain, Gabe Strong, Luke Lewis, and Matthew Cavanagh
Thumbnail contributions by Ben Powell, Ren Hurley, and Peter Sheppard
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound