Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord & 10% Off All Merch!
https://www.patreon.com/pbsspacetime

It’s not too often that a giant of physics threatens to overturn an idea held to be self-evident by generations of physicists. Well, that may be the fate of the famous Penrose Singularity Theorem if we’re to believe a recent paper by Roy Kerr. Long story short, the terrible singularity at the heart of the black hole may be no more.

Roy Kerr Paper: Do Black Holes have Singularities?
https://arxiv.org/pdf/2312.00841.pdf

Check out the Space Time Merch Store
https://www.pbsspacetime.com/shop

PBS Member Stations rely on viewers like you. To support your local station, go to:http://to.pbs.org/DonateSPACE

Sign up for the mailing list to get episode notifications and hear special announcements!
https://mailchi.mp/1a6eb8f2717d/spacetime

Search the Entire Space Time Library Here: https://search.pbsspacetime.com/

Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Christopher Pollack & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2024 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:
Big Bang Sponsors
John Sronce
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
David Neumann
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Quasar Sponsors
Glenn Sugden
Alex Kern
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
Mark Heising

Hypernova Sponsors
Chris Webb
David Giltinan
Ivari Tölp
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Bradley Voorhees
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Mathew
Donal Botkin
Edmund Fokschaner
chuck zegar
Jordan Young
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst Sponsors
Grace Seraph
Frank Plessers
Max Paladino
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Leonardo Schulthais Senna
Lori Ferris
Dennis Van Hoof
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Joe Pavlovic
Justin Lloyd
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B Combs
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
teng guo
Harsh Khandhadia
Jammer
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Joe Moreira
Kent Durham
jim bartosh
Ramon Nogueira
John H. Austin, Jr.
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
Russ Creech
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Oliver Flanagan
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
Tonyface
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
David Barnholdt
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Amy Hickman
Vlad Shipulin
Thomas Dougherty
King Zeckendorff
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone
Patrick Sutton
Julien Dubois

The world’s strongest magnet is a million times stronger than Earth’s magnetic field.

Check Out Fascinating Fails: https://youtu.be/8zMhoj7tFiw?feature=shared

Check Out the Space Time Merch Store
https://www.pbsspacetime.com/shop

This is what we astronomers call a blob, or a smudge, if you want to get really technical. It may not look like much from here, but what do you expect for something near the literal edge of the observable universe. If you were there when this light was emitted, you’d A. be at the beginning of time, and B. be looking at an entire galaxy containing an enormous black hole at its heart. It’s the most distant black hole we’ve semi-directly detected. That’s cool enough on its own, but as an added bonus this one smudge may have solved the mystery of the origin of the supermassive black holes in our universe.

PBS Member Stations rely on viewers like you. To support your local station, go to:http://to.pbs.org/DonateSPACE

Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord!
https://www.patreon.com/pbsspacetime

Sign up for the mailing list to get episode notifications and hear special announcements!
https://mailchi.mp/1a6eb8f2717d/spacetime

Search the Entire Space Time Library Here: https://search.pbsspacetime.com/

Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt Caplan, Hayley West & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2024 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang Sponsors
John Sronce
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
David Neumann
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Quasar Sponsors
Glenn Sugden
Alex Kern
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
Mark Heising

Hypernova Sponsors
Stephen Spidle
Chris Webb
David Giltinan
Ivari Tölp
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Bradley Voorhees
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Donal Botkin
Edmund Fokschaner
Chuck Zegar
Jordan Young
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst
Grace Seraph
Parliament
Frank Plessers
Max Paladino
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Leonardo Schulthais Senna
Lori Ferris
Dennis Van Hoof
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
gmmiddleton
Joe Pavlovic
Justin Lloyd
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B Combs
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
teng guo
Harsh Khandhadia
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Joe Moreira
Kent Durham
Jim Bartosh
Ramon Nogueira
John H. Austin, Jr.
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
Russ Creech
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Oliver Flanagan
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
David Barnholdt
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Amy Hickman
Vlad Shipulin
Thomas Dougherty
King Zeckendorff
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone
Patrick Sutton
Julien Dubois

The blue LED was supposed to be impossible—until a young engineer proposed a moonshot idea. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join this list to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

We have a tabletop game launching! Pledge your support now – https://ve42.co/KickStarterD

Huge thanks to the UC Santa Barbara Materials Dept (https://ssleec.ucsb.edu/) for taking us around.
Thanks to Álvaro Bermejillo Seco for reviewing the science.
Thanks to these especially helpful sources:
Nobel Prize Biography – Shuji Nakamura – https://ve42.co/NakamuraNobel
Johnstone, B. (2015). Brilliant!. Prometheus Books. – https://ve42.co/Johnstone2015
Nakamura, S., Pearton, S., & Fasol, G. (2010). The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story. Springer. – https://ve42.co/Nakamura2010

▀▀▀
References:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8M2z2hIbag
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGUteH93xNo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idwKHQEw78g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoTALRhAqWc
Touchstone, L. A. (2022). Nick Holonyak Jr. University of Illinois. – https://ve42.co/Touchstone2022
Perry, T. S. (1995). The Unsung Inventor. IEEE Spectrum. – https://ve42.co/Perry1995
Chabay, R. & Sherwood, B. (2011). Matter & interactions (4th ed.), S2: Semiconductors. Wiley. – https://ve42.co/ChabaySherwood
How MOCVD Works via Aixtron – https://ve42.co/MOCVD
Vangala, S. R., et al. (2019). Epitaxial growth of ZnSe on GaAs. Journal of Crystal Growth. – https://ve42.co/Vangala2019
Nakamura, S. (1991). GaN Growth Using GaN Buffer Layer. JJAP. – https://ve42.co/Nakamura3rd1991
Amano, H., et al. (1989). P-Type Conduction in Mg-Doped GaN w/ LEEBI. JJAP. – https://ve42.co/Amano1989
Huang, M., et al. (2021). Defects in Mg–H‐Codoped GaN. Physica Status Solidi. – https://ve42.co/Huang2021
Schubert, E. F. (2006). Light Emitting Diodes, Ch 4: LED basics. Cambridge University Press. – https://ve42.co/RPI-LEDs
Kitada, C. (2001). Blue About Japan. Japan Inc. – https://ve42.co/Kitada2001
Whitaker, T. (2002). Nakamura loses Nichia patent battle. Optics.org. – https://ve42.co/NichiaSales3
Pirates Osaka. (2014). Nakamura awarded Nobel Prize in Physics. Hatena Blog. – https://ve42.co/NichiaSales1
Growth Bozu via Twitter. – https://ve42.co/NichiaSales2
Rose, J. (2014). Blue LEDs – Filling the world with new light. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. – https://ve42.co/Rose2014
Pattison, P. M., et al. (2017). LED lighting efficacy. Comptes Rendus Physique. – https://ve42.co/Pattison2017
Electricity pricing via EIA – https://ve42.co/ElectricityPricing
Lane, K., et al. (2023). Lighting. IEA. – https://ve42.co/LightingIEA
LED Footprint via The Climate Group – https://ve42.co/ClimateGroupLED
Nichia’s History via Nichia – https://ve42.co/NichiaHistory
Shuji Nakamura via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/NakamuraWiki

Images & Video:
Lighting the World via UCTVInsight on YouTube – https://ve42.co/UCTVep2 & https://ve42.co/UCTVep3
Palo Alto Times 1971 Article via Newspapers.com – https://ve42.co/Newspapers
Nick Holonyak, Jr. and the LED via UIUC on YouTube – https://ve42.co/HolonyakIllinois
The Original Blue LED via Science History Institute on YouTube – https://ve42.co/OGBlueLED
Maxfield, M. (2022). Compound Semiconductors. EE Journal. – https://ve42.co/Maxfield2022
M. Stutzmann, et al. (2001). Playing with Polarity. pss (b). – https://ve42.co/Stutzman2001
Isamu Akasaki in 1995 via Andrey Nikolaev on YouTube – https://ve42.co/AsakiNikolaev
Pioneer TX-610 Stereo Tuner via Ian Marino on YouTube – https://ve42.co/StereoMarino
Shuji Nakamura via EPO on YouTube – https://ve42.co/NakamuraEPO
Nichia Campus via Nichia on LinkedIn – https://ve42.co/NichiaHQ
Nichia via TDElektronik on YouTube – https://ve42.co/NichiaTDE
Violeds Sterilization of COVID-19 via Seoul Viosys – https://ve42.co/SterilizationUV

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang, Ricky Nathvani, and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Mike Radjabov, David Szakaly, Ivy Tello, and Alondra Vitae
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, and Trenton Oliver
Additional research by Gregor Čavlović
Produced by Emily Zhang, Han Evans, Gregor Čavlović, and Derek Muller

Thumbnail by Ren Hurley
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

Experiencing the extraordinary properties of aerogel first hand

The rainiest place on earth isn’t where you might expect. Get exclusive NordVPN deal here ➵ https://NordVPN.com/veritasium. It’s risk free with Nord’s 30 day money-back guarantee!

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join this list to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

▀▀▀
Huge thanks to Okouchi-San and Dr. Sakai and everyone at NIED and the Large Scale Rainfall Simulator for their time, expertise and access to this amazing facility.

A big thank you to Prof. Olga Mavrouli and Prof. Bill Schulz for their invaluable expertise on the mechanisms of landslides.

▀▀▀
References:
Ulbrich, C. W. (1983). Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution. Journal of climate and applied meteorology, 1764-1775. – https://ve42.co/Ulbrich83

Van Boxel, J. H. (1997, November). Numerical model for the fall speed of rain drops in a rain fall simulator. In Workshop on wind and water erosion (Vol. 5, pp. 77-85). – https://ve42.co/Boxel87

Canuti, P., Focardi, P., & Garzonio, C. (1985). Correlation between rainfall and landslides. Bulletin of Engineering Geology & the Environment, 32(1).

Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H., Toll, D. G., & Leong, E. C. (2002). Controlling parameters for rainfall-induced landslides. Computers and geotechnics, 29(1), 1-27. – https://ve42.co/Tsaparas2002

Nakamura, H., & Oosawa, M. (2021, March). Effects of the underground discharge channel/reservoir for small urban rivers in the Tokyo area. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 703, No. 1, p. 012029). IOP Publishing. – https://ve42.co/Nakamura21

Guthrie, R. H., & Evans, S. G. (2004). Magnitude and frequency of landslides triggered by a storm event, Loughborough Inlet, British Columbia. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 4(3), 475-483. – https://ve42.co/Guthrie2004

Images & Video:
Miyako, Iwate Tsunami via ANNnewsCH – https://ve42.co/Miyako2011
Mount Onake Volcano via BBC News – https://ve42.co/BBCOnake
Typhoon Jebi via Al Jazeera – https://ve42.co/TyphoonJebi
East Asia Typhoons via CBC News – https://ve42.co/TyphoonCBC
Atami Landslide via The Quint – https://ve42.co/Atami2021
Atami Landslide via news.com.au – https://ve42.co/2ndAtami2021
Sendai Earthquake via ANNnewsCH – https://ve42.co/SendaiQuake
Nagasaki Mudslide via The Telegrap – https://ve42.co/NagasakiMudslide
Wajima Landslide via Guardian News – https://ve42.co/WajimaLandslide
Drone Rainfall Test via AIZAWAchan – https://ve42.co/DroneRain
Car Rainfall Test via TIER IV – https://ve42.co/CarRainTest
Rainfall Simulator via NIED – https://ve42.co/RainfallSim1
External Footage of Simulator via NIED – https://ve42.co/RainfallSim2
Landslide Simulations via NIED – https://ve42.co/RainfallSim3
Typhoon Prapiroon via Force Thirteen – https://ve42.co/TyphoonPrapiroon
Yanohigashi Floods via CNA – https://ve42.co/YanohigashiFloods
Japan Floods via The Telegraph – https://ve42.co/TelegraphFlood
Japan Floods via euronew – https://ve42.co/EuroNewsFlood
Typhoon Hagibis via Guardian News – https://ve42.co/TyphoonHagibis
Typhoon Hagibis via SCMP – https://ve42.co/TyphoonHagibisSCMP
Satellite Imagery of Hagibis via Force Thirteen – https://ve42.co/HagibisSatellite
Tokyo Flood Control System via NikkeiAsia.com – https://ve42.co/FloodControl
Landslides Footage via Underworld – https://ve42.co/MonsterLandslides
Norway Landslide via ABC7 – https://ve42.co/NorwayLandslide
Planet Destruction via BBC – https://ve42.co/BBCDestruction
B.C. Climate Change Danger via CBC News – https://ve42.co/BCClimateChange
Canada’s Logging Roads via CBC News – https://ve42.co/CBCLogging

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Directed by Petr Lebedev
Written by Petr Lebedev
Edited by Peter Nelson
Additional Research by Gregor Čavlović
Animated by Fabio Albertelli
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Derek Muller
Produced by Petr Lebedev, Han Evans and Gregor Čavlović
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound

Learn More About 80,000 Hours at: https://www.80000hours.org/spacetime

PBS Member Stations rely on viewers like you. To support your local station, go to:http://to.pbs.org/DonateSPACE

Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord!
https://www.patreon.com/pbsspacetime

From hoverboards to flying cars to cloud cities, anti-gravity is a staple of science fiction and our dream of a less Earth-bound future. But in the real universe gravity appears to be a purely attractive force. Feels like its main MO is keeping us stuck to the surface of this lonely rock. But maybe if we science hard enough we can remove the fiction from science fiction. For the sake of our flying cars we should at least try. And for many years, physicists have wondered whether a certain well-known exotic material may experience gravitational repulsion from the Earth. That material is antimatter, and physicists at CERN have just completed a very long and very difficult experiment to answer a seemingly simple question: does antimatter fall down, or does it fall up?

Check out the Space Time Merch Store
https://www.pbsspacetime.com/shop

Sign up for the mailing list to get episode notifications and hear special announcements!
https://mailchi.mp/1a6eb8f2717d/spacetime

Search the Entire Space Time Library Here: https://search.pbsspacetime.com/

Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Christopher Pollack & Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is a production of Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2023 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang Sponsors
John Sronce
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
David Neumann
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Quasar Sponsors
Glenn Sugden
Alex Kern
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
Mark Heising

Hypernova Sponsors
Stephen Spidle
Chris Webb
David Giltinan
Ivari Tölp
Zachary Wilson
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
drollere
Bradley Voorhees
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Donal Botkin
Edmund Fokschaner
chuck zegar
Jordan Young
Matthew Pabst
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst Sponsors
Max Paladino
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Billy Holland
Leonardo Schulthais Senna
Lori Ferris
Dennis Van Hoof
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Massimiliano Pala
Thomas Nielson
Joe Pavlovic
Justin Lloyd
Chuck Lukaszewski
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
teng guo
Harsh Khandhadia
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
comboy
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Joe Moreira
Kent Durham
jim bartosh
Ramon Nogueira
John H. Austin, Jr.
Diana S Poljar
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
Russ Creech
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Oliver Flanagan
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
Alex Gan
David Barnholdt
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Amy Hickman
Vlad Shipulin
Cody Brumfield
Thomas Dougherty
King Zeckendorff
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone
Patrick Sutton
Julien Dubois

Do you really know how big the universe is? There’s a data driven way to read the news: go to https://ground.news/veritasium to get 30% off the Vantage plan and see through sensationalized reporting.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Dr. Ashmeet Singh for his expert feedback on this video.

▀▀▀
References:
Fun video by RealLifeLore about the scale of the Universe – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iy7NzjCmUf0&pp=ygUkcmVhbCBsaWZlIGxvcmUgc2NhbGUgb2YgdGhlIHVuaXZlcnNl
Moon Facts via NASA – https://ve42.co/NASAMoon
Titan Facts via NASA – https://ve42.co/Titan
Mercury Facts via NASA – https://ve42.co/Mercury
Why Pluto is no Longer a Planet, BBC News via YouTube – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIk29MnzZWA&pp=ygUYcGx1dG8gbm8gbG9uZ2VyIGEgcGxhbmV0
Pluto, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WikiPluto
Eris, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WikiEris
Brown, M. E., & Schaller, E. L. (2007). The mass of dwarf planet Eris. Science, 316(5831), 1585-1585. – https://ve42.co/Brown2007
Trans-Neptunian object, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WikiTNO
IAU 2006 General Assembly Press Release, via IAU – https://ve42.co/IAU2006
Solar System Moons via NASA – https://ve42.co/NASAMoons
Solar System Asteroids via NASA – https://ve42.co/Asteroids
Solar System, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WikiSolarSystem
How many stars are in the Universe via ESA – https://ve42.co/ESAStars
Catalog of Exoplanets via exoplanet – https://ve42.co/ExoplanetCatalog
Crowther, T. W., Glick, H. B., Covey, K. R., Bettigole, C., Maynard, D. S., Thomas, S. M., … & Bradford, M. A. (2015). Mapping tree density at a global scale. Nature, 525(7568), 201-205. – https://ve42.co/Crowther2015
Galaxy, Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/WikiGalaxy
Counting Galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope via NASA – https://ve42.co/CountingGalaxies
Conselice, C. J., Wilkinson, A., Duncan, K., & Mortlock, A. (2016). The evolution of galaxy number density at z8 and its implications. The Astrophysical Journal, 830(2), 83. – https://ve42.co/Conselice2016
Sagan, C., & Druyan, A. (2011). Pale blue dot: A vision of the human future in space. Ballantine books.

Images & Video:
Clip of Titan’s Surface, NASA via YouTube – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn3-0a19sC8
Clips of Pluto Had it Coming, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert via YouTube – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nqT7XrYRPc
Image of Solar System Objects – https://ve42.co/SolarSystemObjects

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius and Derek Muller
Additional research & fact checking by Gregor Čavlović
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Ivy Tello and Alondra Vitae
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno and Zyan Treadwell
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius and Han Evans

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, StoryBlocks and by courtesy of NASA, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/SDO, NASA JPL, NASA/JPL-Caltech NASA GSFC, NASA HQ, NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio, NCSA, A. Kritsuk, M. Norman

Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard

Check out the Space Time Merch Store
https://www.pbsspacetime.com/shop

Sign Up on Patreon to get access to the Space Time Discord!
https://www.patreon.com/pbsspacetime

Two of the greatest mysteries in cosmology are the nature of dark energy and the apparent conflict in our measurements of the expansion rate of the early versus the modern universe that even dark energy can’t account for. Could both of these be explained by looking to a part of the universe that we’ve largely ignored so far? Could cosmic voids be driving the universe?

Episodes Referenced:
The Evolution of the Modern Milky Way Galaxy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3jGWXeBtPo&ab_channel=PBSSpaceTime
Dr. Beck: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlNSvrYygRc&t=1s&ab_channel=Dr.Becky
Dr. Becky: https://youtu.be/-kTe0xRAU1w?feature=shared
Dark Energy Playlist: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4PayaEgEZc&list=PLsPUh22kYmNAv1_8MA9-USkY6f2lfr1hb&ab_channel=PBSSpaceTime

PBS Member Stations rely on viewers like you. To support your local station, go to:http://to.pbs.org/DonateSPACE

Sign up for the mailing list to get episode notifications and hear special announcements!
https://mailchi.mp/1a6eb8f2717d/spacetime

Search the Entire Space Time Library Here: https://search.pbsspacetime.com/

Hosted by Matt O’Dowd
Written by Matt O’Dowd
Post Production by Leonardo Scholzer, Yago Ballarini & Stephanie Faria
Directed by Andrew Kornhaber
Associate Producer: Bahar Gholipour
Executive Producers: Eric Brown & Andrew Kornhaber
Executive in Charge for PBS: Maribel Lopez
Director of Programming for PBS: Gabrielle Ewing
Assistant Director of Programming for PBS: John Campbell

Spacetime is produced by Kornhaber Brown for PBS Digital Studios.
This program is produced by Kornhaber Brown, which is solely responsible for its content.
© 2023 PBS. All rights reserved.

End Credits Music by J.R.S. Schattenberg: https://www.youtube.com/user/MultiDroideka

Space Time Was Made Possible In Part By:

Big Bang Supporters
Bryce Fort
Peter Barrett
David Neumann
Sean Maddox
Alexander Tamas
Morgan Hough
Juan Benet
Vinnie Falco
Mark Rosenthal

Quasar Supporters
Glenn Sugden
Alex Kern
Ethan Cohen
Stephen Wilcox
Mark Heising

Hypernova Supporters
Stephen Spidle
Chris Webb
David Giltinan
Ivari Tölp
Zachary Wilson
Kenneth See
Gregory Forfa
Bradley Voorhees
Scott Gorlick
Paul Stehr-Green
Ben Delo
Scott Gray
Антон Кочков
Robert Ilardi
John R. Slavik
Donal Botkin
Edmund Fokschaner
chuck zegar
Jordan Young
Daniel Muzquiz

Gamma Ray Burst Supporters
Robert DeChellis
Tomaz Lovsin
Anthony Leon
Billy Holland
Leonardo Schulthais Senna
Lori Ferris
Dennis Van Hoof
Koen Wilde
Nicolas Katsantonis
Massimiliano Pala
Thomas Nielson
Joe Pavlovic
Justin Lloyd
Chuck Lukaszewski
Cole B Combs
Andrea Galvagni
Jerry Thomas
Nikhil Sharma
John Anderson
Bradley Ulis
Craig Falls
Kane Holbrook
Ross Story
Teng Guo
Harsh Khandhadia
Matt Quinn
Michael Lev
Terje Vold
James Trimmier
Jeremy Soller
Paul Wood
Joe Moreira
Kent Durham
jim bartosh
Ramon Nogueira
The Mad Mechanic
John H. Austin, Jr.
Diana S Poljar
Faraz Khan
Almog Cohen
Daniel Jennings
Russ Creech
Jeremy Reed
David Johnston
Michael Barton
Isaac Suttell
Oliver Flanagan
Bleys Goodson
Mark Delagasse
Mark Daniel Cohen
Shane Calimlim
Tybie Fitzhugh
Eric Kiebler
Craig Stonaha
Frederic Simon
John Robinson
Jim Hudson
Alex Gan
David Barnholdt
John Funai
Adrien Molyneux
Bradley Jenkins
Amy Hickman
Vlad Shipulin
Cody Brumfield
Thomas Dougherty
King Zeckendorff
Dan Warren
Joseph Salomone
Patrick Sutton
Julien Dubois

The Journey to Piedras Negras, Guatemala to see the Mayan Ruins along the Usumacinta river was absolutely epic. This is one of the best travel adventures I have ever done.

I originally taveled to this place to film my documentary “Refugees From Atlantis” – https://youtu.be/dzdDZ3t10so?si=YZ8j3couHk5nMnFl

This is also a chapter in my book “Enigmatic North America: Legends, Oddities, and Controversial History” – https://www.amazon.com/Enigmatic-North-America-Oddities-Controversial/dp/B0CLK35R13/ref=sr_1_1?crid=2ANUUWBK4BZYV&keywords=enigmatic+north+america&qid=1704547011&sprefix=enigmatic+north+aaps653&sr=8-1